Social Marginality in Education - Excerpts from my discussions.

 

1. What is marginalization?
   Khabirul Alam & Ujjwal Kumar Halder propose that, “Marginalization is a multidimensional process that denies opportunities and outcomes to those 'living on the margins', while enhancing the opportunities and outcomes for those who are 'at the centre'”.
   Peter Leonard defines marginality as, "being outside the mainstream of productive activity and social reproductive activity".
   According to the paper ‘Intersectionality of Marginalization and Inequality: A Case Study of Muslims in India’ - ‘marginalization’ is a set of process which ignores or relegates individuals or groups to the sidelines of political space, social negotiation, and economic bargaining.
    The concept of ‘marginalization’ can be represented through major approaches such as neoclassical economics, Marxism, social exclusion theory and various other forms of marginality. Neoclassical economists trace marginalization to individual character flaws or to cultural resistance to individualism and the presence of ‘culture of poverty’
2. What is social marginalization?
   According to the paper ‘Constitutional Rights and Marginalization in Education in India’ -Marginalization, also called Social Exclusion, is a multidimensional process that denies opportunities and outcomes to those 'living on the margins', while enhancing the opportunities and outcomes for those who are 'at the centre'. Peter Leonard defines marginality as, "being outside the mainstream of productive activity and social reproductive activity". The EFA Global Monitoring Report 2010: Reaching the marginalized, defines marginalization as "a form of acute and persistent disadvantage rooted in underlying social inequalities". The Encyclopedia of Public Health defines marginalized groups as, "To be marginalized is to be placed in the margins, and thus excluded from the privilege and power found at the center". Indian Constitution recognizes socially marginalized communities based on the Caste they belong to. On the basis of caste, Scheduled Castes (SC), Scheduled Tribes (ST), Other Backward Classes (OBC) and the religious minorities, and also women are marginalized in the field of education.
   According to the paper ‘Intersectionality of Marginalization and Inequality: A Case Study of Muslims in India’ - Marginalization is a process that leads to sidelining of a certain community/individual to the periphery of the social space that eventually constrain their life choices at political space, social negotiation, and economic bargaining.
3. Who is socially marginalised?
   Socially marginalized groups include those who face systemic disadvantages and are often excluded or disadvantaged in various aspects of social, economic, and political life. People who are marginalized have relatively little control over their lives and the resources available to them.
   E.g.: Indian Constitution recognizes socially marginalized communities based on the Caste they belong to. On the basis of caste, Scheduled Castes (SC), Scheduled Tribes (ST), Other Backward Classes (OBC) and the religious minorities, and also women are marginalized in the field of education.
4. What is cultural and social reproduction?
   Social reproduction is how societies pass on their way of doing things, like rules, values, and inequalities, from one generation to the next. It involves keeping social relationships, institutions, and behaviours going to maintain a particular way of life over time. It's like a cycle that ensures a society's traditions and structures are carried forward to the next generation, shaping its identities and how things work. Cultural reproduction is a subset of social reproduction, focusing specifically on the transmission of cultural norms, values, symbols, and practices from one generation to the next.
   The paper ‘New Imperatives for elementary education’ mentions, “far from offering a plural education system, the country has an elementary education system that caters to economic and social differences, and thereby reinforces variations in the education outcome.”
5. What are the formal terms for two marginalised sections in India?
   As per the paper on “Education and Social Equity With a Special Focus on Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes in Elementary Education by Sangeeta Kamat, “Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes are the terms of reference listed in the Indian Constitution, and in government, legal and scholarly writing, particularly of the colonial period. The terms SC and ST are now used to refer to the communities listed in the Government Schedule as ‘outcastes’ and ‘tribals’, respectively. The notion of ‘outcastes’ is premised upon the Hindu caste system. The term ‘Dalit’ (meaning broken, oppressed, downtrodden) emerged from within the Scheduled Caste community to highlight their oppressed status and establish their unique identity and consciousness as the ‘Other’ within Hindu society. Scheduled Tribes are similarly distinct from mainstream Hindu society, with lifestyles, languages and cultural practices different from the known religions of India.
6. Explain a few acts benefitting the marginalized.
   
   The paper, ‘Constitutional Rights and Marginalization in Education in India’ by Ujjwal Kumar Halder and Khabirul Alam, mentions the following acts that benefit the marginalized:
   
   Article 45: Right for Early Childhood Care and Education (ECCE) to all children until they complete the age of six years. This article is considered as a directive principle of state policy.
   Article 21A: The Right of Children to Free and Compulsory Education Act (RTE, Right to Education): The Right of Children to Free and Compulsory Education Act' or 'Right to Education Act also known as RTE', is an Act of the Parliament of India enacted on 4th August 2009, which describes the modalities of the importance of free and compulsory education for children between 6 and 14 in India under Article 21A (Article 21is the Fundamental Right to Life) of the Indian Constitution.
   Article 14: Equality before law: The State shall not deny to any person equality before the law or the equal protection of the laws within the territory of India.This is a fundamental right and cannot be easily taken away from an individual.
   Article 15: Prohibition of discrimination on grounds of religion, race, caste, sex and place of birth.
   Article 46: Promotion of the economic and educational interests of the Scheduled Castes, Scheduled Tribes and other weaker sections.
   Article 29(2) states: "No citizen shall be denied admission into any educational institution maintained by the State or receiving aid out of State funds, on grounds only of religion, race, caste, language or any of them".
   Article 17: Indian Constitution is a legislation that abolishes practice of untouchability in any form.
7. Different Schools for the poor by the government.
   In education, there are significant unfairnesses that show up in various ways. Firstly, the country has many types of schools based on language, school board, ownership, and management. There are at least eleven types, like government schools, private aided schools, open schools, religious schools (like Madrassas), private schools linked to state exams, middle-ranking private schools, central schools, tribal residential schools, international schools, and new informal schools. Each caters more to parents' economic interests than cultural preferences. So, instead of providing diverse education, the country has a basic education system that reinforces economic and social gaps, affecting educational outcomes.
   These school variations create several problems. Although education is believed to improve life chances and social status, the different types of schools hinder the pooling of talent. This leads to an unfair education system that goes against norms for equal education. Economic differences between schools are stark, with international schools charging fees equal to or more than the annual budget of an entire local governing body. The content and focus of education in these varied schools also differ significantly.
   The decline in government school quality has led to more low-fee private schools, deepening divides based on caste, class, and gender. In some villages, government schools primarily serve the poorest and lower-ranked, while upper-caste and many boys from even poor families attend private schools. This lopsided system denies the mixing of children from diverse backgrounds. New directives involving the community in government school administration become ineffective, as advantaged parents prefer private schools, leaving the most disadvantaged to manage local school responsibilities. Religious schools add to the isolation of children and contribute to sharply varied educational experiences. Overall, the education system reflects and worsens societal inequalities instead of providing equal opportunities for all.
8. What is the relationship between the proportion of SC and ST in a state population with educational attainment of that state?
   Four states with highest SC population
   Four states with higher ST population
   3 states with highest proportion of population with ST
   
   Four states with highest SC population – UP | West Bengal | Bihar | Tamil Nadu
   Four states with higher ST population – MP | Maharashtra | Odisha | Rajasthan
   3 states with the highest proportion of the population with ST –Lakshadweep |  Mizoram |  Nagaland |
   
   In states where the proportion of Scheduled Caste (SC) and Scheduled Tribe (ST) populations is notably high, these communities constitute the majority rather than a minority. Consequently, policies tend to be structured to cater to this demographic majority, thereby fostering a more inclusive environment for nationally marginalized groups. However, the educational framework frequently fails to adequately address the unique linguistic and cultural contexts of these communities. For instance, the medium of instruction may not align with their native tongues, resulting in significant comprehension gaps and hindering effective learning outcomes.

Moreover, the employment opportunities available to individuals from these communities often diverge markedly from their customary way of life. The occupations for which they are prepared may lie outside the conventional scope of their lived experiences, posing challenges of cultural disconnection and alienation. This disparity in language instruction and occupational context not only exacerbates existing social inequities but also perpetuates a cycle of marginalization and exclusion within these communities.

9. Sachar committee's main findings and recommendations?
   As discussed in Yasmeen Jahan's paper, "Intersectionality of Marginalization and Inequality: A Case Study of Muslims in India," a noteworthy committee led by Justice Rajinder Sachar was established to examine the social, economic, and educational conditions of India's Muslim community. Commonly referred to as the Sachar Committee Report, it centers on the idea of a development deficit among Muslims, meticulously analyzing their circumstances. The findings include:

i)       Muslims face a dual disadvantage with both low levels and poor quality of education, and this deprivation increases as education levels rise, sometimes even surpassing the levels experienced by Scheduled Castes (SCs) who have historically faced caste-based discrimination.

ii)      According to the Sachar Report, the literacy rate among Muslims in 2001 was 59.1%, below the national average and that of other social-religious communities (SRCs). The literacy gap between Muslims and the general average is more significant in urban areas and among women.

iii)    Urban Muslims, especially women, have a larger literacy deficit compared to the state's average. The Muslim community consistently exhibits lower levels of Mean Years of Schooling (MYS) across SRCs, both by gender and place of residence.

iv)    The Sachar Committee's findings reveal that 25% of Muslim children aged 6-14 either never attended school or dropped out at some stage. This gap widens as education levels increase. Only 3% of Muslim children of school-going age attend Madrasas.

v)      This educational disparity reflects how the Muslim community, either directly or indirectly, perpetuates inequalities, showcasing the societal marginalization of Indian Muslims.

Additionally, the incidence of poverty is highest among Muslim OBCs, followed by Muslim General. Conditions for Muslim-OBCs are worse than those for Muslim-General, with a larger percentage falling into the low-income category. Within the Muslim community, Muslim-OBCs slightly lag behind Muslim-General in the high-income group.

Recommendations from the Sachar Committee highlight the need for a significant policy shift, recognizing the problem and implementing corrective measures, as well as allocating resources. The proposed measures include improving educational opportunities, increasing employment representation, and enhancing the socio-economic status of the Muslim community.

10. Why is the status of Muslim education so poor in India?
     Many Indian Muslims feel left out from mainstream opportunities, showing they're not fully included in society. As students move further in school, more Muslims drop out because they feel financially disadvantaged and believe formal education doesn't lead to good jobs, especially in the government sector where they have fewer opportunities. Women face challenges in getting an education due to cultural norms and family priorities that often prioritize their traditional roles. In Jammu and Kashmir, there's clear evidence of gender disparities in education, and among religious groups, Muslim women face the most challenges. This isn't because of religious teachings but rather due to a lack of awareness and political empowerment.
11. Monolithic versus heterogeneity of Muslims in India, what is beneficial and for whom?
    Representing Muslims as a single, uniform group in politics and social science is being challenged. Despite the democratizing effects of Indian democracy on various social groups, the Muslim community hasn't experienced the same. Social and educational reforms within the Muslim community are yet to begin. It's important to examine the historical, socio-economic, and political silencing of Muslims.
    We need to recognize the diversities within the Muslim community to understand the extent of their marginalization and the factors contributing to their exclusion. Like any other religious community in India, Muslims are diverse in ethnicity, language, and culture, similar to caste and class distinctions. Previous studies often portrayed Muslims through a religious lens in socio-economic and spatial analyses. The inclusion of Muslims in the OBCs list and affirmative action policies following Mandal Commission recommendations challenged the perception of homogeneity. This move brought attention to backward classes among Muslims, but the democratization process got entangled with reservation politics.
    A sociological perspective, as presented in the book "Muslim Backward Classes: A Sociological Perspective" by Azra Khanam, explores the historical and sociological reasons for caste-like social structures within the Muslim community.